Those interested in the medieval history of Eastern Europe have likely encountered the thesis that it’s important to distinguish between the terms Ruthenian and Russian. This is often justified by the claim that Ruthenian referred to the ancestors of modern Ukrainians and Belarusians who lived under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In contrast, Russians were allegedly called Muscovites. Can you already smell the burnt fat of fairy-tale stories about “Muscovites who stole the name Rus’” and Ruthenians, a.k.a. Ukrainians (and Belorussians, depending on their attitude to Russia of course)being portrayed as “the most authentic Eastern Slavs”?
It all sounds quite compelling, but there’s one problem. Both Muscovite and Ruthenian are exonyms. An exonym is a term used by foreigners to refer to a particular people and the state they inhabit. For example, most nations call the Japanese Japanese, and the Armenian state is often referred to using terms derived from the ancient Greek Ἀρμενίᾱ (Armeníā), while the Japanese call themselves 日本人 (nihonjin/nipponjin), and Armenians refer to their country as Հայաստան (Hayastan).
Ruthenian is merely a Latin exonym for the Russians, who referred to themselves as русин (rusin), русак (rusak), русский человек (russkiy chelovek, literally “Russian person”), and now the familiar русский (russkiy). Similarly, Moscovia and Muscovite are foreign exonyms derived from the only independent and significant Russian kingdom at the time, which later became politicized. The term Muscovite was even used to describe individuals who lived long before the founding of Russia’s current capital.
In fact, there is substantial evidence that Muscovite was synonymous with Ruthenian. For instance, Johann Faber () in his treatise Religio Moscovitarum, published in 1526 and addressed to the Most Serene Lord Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, wrote:
“Thus, I find that the peoples now commonly called by us Muscovites were once, according to Pliny’s testimony, called Roxolani (Muscovites. Roxolani.). Ptolemy, however, altering a letter slightly, calls them Rosolani on the eighth map of Europe, as does Strabo. They have long been called Rutheni (…) Thus, Rutheni or Muscovites…”
Indeed, the Germans have never been fond of Ukrainians. Either Scholz, the “liverwurst,” refuses to provide weapons, or German clerics strip Ukrainians of their last sacred possession—their name “Ruthenian.” As if that weren’t enough, they’ve also snatched “Roxolans” right out of their hands. Well, perhaps the Swedes—neighbors of the “damned Muscovites”—can reveal the scorching truth about these impostors. In the book Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (History of the Northern Peoples) by the Swedish historian and cartographer Olaus Magnus, there is an account of clashes between Russians and Finns or Swedes:
“In the ancient chronicles of the northern countries, there are numerous accounts of skirmishes between the Ruthenians (Russians) or Muscovites on one side and the Swedes or Finns on the other, with these conflicts arising for one reason or another, but always of utmost importance, and taking place on sea, on land, on ice, and in deep snow.”
This is followed by a narrative describing epic battles on ice. The subsequent chapter is titled “On the raids of the Muscovites, or Ruthenes.”
Once again, the terms “Muscovite” and “Ruthenian” are used as synonyms. And it’s somewhat illogical: for the Dnieper dwellers, living far from the northern borders, there’s no reason to wage war against the Swedes. They’d have to reach them first! So, Ukrainians are left with only Sigismund von Herberstein and his famous Notes on Muscovy. It would seem that joy has arrived—here it is, the cherished book containing the whole truth! After all, Herberstein himself visited these lands, so he surely knows everything!
However, “zrada” crept in from an unexpected angle. The very title of the book delivers bitter news for Ukrainian patriots. Most of them cling only to the first part of the title, as if the second part doesn’t exist. Indeed, A Very Brief Description of Russia and Muscovy, Which Is Now Its Capital doesn’t quite align with the narrative of a “stolen name.”
The work itself is remarkably fascinating because its author, unlike some others, observed Russian life with his own eyes rather than relying on the accounts of other travelers. From the entire treatise, I would like to draw attention to Herberstein’s version of the origin of the Russian endonym:
“The Muscovites themselves, rejecting such opinions, assert that their country was originally called ‘Rosseya,’ and this name indicates the scattered and dispersed nature of its people, for ‘Rosseya’ in the Russian language means ‘scattering’ or ‘dispersion.’ This opinion seems evidently valid, as even now various peoples live intermingled with the inhabitants of Russia, with other lands wedged in everywhere, dividing it. [From sacred scripture, we know that the word ‘dispersion’ is used by the prophets when speaking of the scattering of peoples. However, in this way, the name of the Russians could be derived from a Greek or even Chaldean root, for instance, from the word for ‘flow’ or ‘current,’ in Greek rhous, or from the Aramaic Resissaia or Ressaia, meaning ‘sprinkling.’ Similarly, the Jews named the Gauls and Umbrians from Gall and Gallim, as well as from Umber, which signifies streams, rains, and floods, thereby indicating that these peoples are restless and turbulent, or a tribe of waters.] But whatever the origin of the name Russia, this people, speaking the Slavic language, professing the Christian faith according to the Greek rite, calling themselves Russi in their native tongue and referred to as Rhuteni in Latin, have so multiplied that they have either driven out the other tribes living among them or compelled them to live according to their ways, so that all are now called by the same name—Russians.”
And here they encroach upon the most sacred—the name “Rhuteni”! But that’s not all! In the Catholic treatise La Perpétuité de la foy de l’Eglise catholique touchant l’Eucharistie, déffendue contre les livres du Sieur Claude, ministre de Charenton, it is stated:
«Russi, ou Rutheni, dont les Moſcovites font partie»
“Russi, or Rutheni, of which Muscovites are part of”
One could joke yet again about the omnipotent hand of Putin, moving beyond space and time to rewrite history as needed, but seriously: if the Dnieper kin of the Russians are so fond of relying on foreign sources, they should do so wisely and not cut corners, as they always seem to do.
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